- IWT signed in 1960 — World Bank as mediator
- Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) → primarily to India
- Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) → primarily to Pakistan
- Permanent Indus Commission — dispute resolution & data exchange body
- Disputed: Kishanganga & Ratle Hydroelectric projects
Recent Context: India accelerated Indus river infrastructure. Pakistan raised international concerns. India cited developmental & security needs for treaty re-examination.
- One of the most successful water-sharing treaties globally
- India sent modification notice to Pakistan in 2023
- World Bank facilitates — does not adjudicate disputes
- India has limited non-consumptive rights on western rivers
- Great Nicobar — southernmost island of Andaman & Nicobar archipelago
- Located near strategically vital Malacca Strait
- Project: transshipment port, airport, township, power plant
- Galathea Bay — ecologically sensitive; marine turtle nesting habitat
- EIA — evaluates environmental consequences before approval
- ICRZ Notification, 2019 — regulates island coastal development
Key Debate: Baseline biodiversity studies, marine ecosystem & cumulative EIA assessments alleged to be inadequate before clearance was granted.
- Hypersonic = speeds greater than Mach 5 (5× speed of sound)
- Scramjet = Supersonic Combustion Ramjet — uses atmospheric oxygen
- DRDO — under Ministry of Defence
- Hypersonic nations: USA, Russia, China, India
- Linked to Atmanirbhar Bharat defence initiative
Key Distinction: Ballistic missiles → parabolic arc. Cruise missiles → fly within atmosphere with precision guidance. Hypersonic cruise missiles combine speed + manoeuvrability.
- HPV (Human Papillomavirus) — primary cause of cervical cancer
- India's indigenous HPV vaccine: CERVAVAC by Serum Institute of India
- WHO goal: Eliminate cervical cancer as a public health problem
- India has one of the highest global burdens of cervical cancer
- CERVAVAC targets HPV strains 6, 11, 16, 18
CERVAVAC: India's first indigenous quadrivalent HPV vaccine. Targets adolescent girls. Cost-effective alternative to imported vaccines.
- IORA — established in 1997; 23 member states
- India is a founding member of IORA
- India's vision: SAGAR = Security and Growth for All in the Region
- Strait of Hormuz — Persian Gulf to Gulf of Oman; critical energy chokepoint
- Indian Ocean carries major share of global crude oil transportation
Chokepoints: Strait of Hormuz → Persian Gulf | Strait of Malacca → SE Asia | Bab-el-Mandeb → Red Sea. Disruptions affect energy prices & global trade.
- Mesopotamian Marshes — world's largest inland wetland ecosystems
- Fed by Tigris and Euphrates rivers
- Chibayish Marshes — located in southern Iraq
- UNESCO World Heritage Site: 2016
- Functions: groundwater recharge, biodiversity, flood control, carbon sequestration
Why in News: Rising water levels revived Chibayish Marshes after prolonged drought, restoring biodiversity, fisheries and Marsh Arab livelihoods.
- Article 164(1) — Chief Minister appointed by Governor
- Articles 153–162 — Governor as constitutional head of State
- S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) — Floor test is constitutionally appropriate
- Sarkaria Commission (1988) — order of preference for hung assemblies
- Punchhi Commission (2010) — gubernatorial discretion guidelines
Sarkaria Order: (1) Pre-election alliance with majority → (2) Single largest party → (3) Post-election alliance → (4) Largest post-election alliance. Floor test must follow.
- 73rd Constitutional Amendment, 1992 — constitutional status to PRIs
- Part IX — Articles 243–243O deal with Panchayats
- Article 243D — reservation for SC, ST, and women in PRIs
- Minimum 1/3rd seats reserved for women; some States give 50%
- Gram Sabha — assembly of all registered voters in village
Note: 73rd Amendment also mandated State Finance Commission and State Election Commission as constitutional bodies for PRIs.
- Article 243A — Gram Sabha
- Article 243B — Three-tier constitution of Panchayats
- Article 243G — Powers & functions (11th Schedule — 29 subjects)
- Article 243K — State Election Commission for Panchayat elections
- ESIC — statutory body under Ministry of Labour & Employment
- ESI Act, 1948 — social security & health insurance to workers
- 4 Labour Codes consolidate 44 central labour laws
- OSH Code, 2020 — workplace safety & welfare laws
- Occupational diseases — illnesses from workplace hazardous conditions
4 Labour Codes: Code on Wages (2019) | Industrial Relations Code (2020) | Code on Social Security (2020) | OSH Code (2020)
- Code on Wages, 2019 — merges Minimum Wages, Payment of Wages, Bonus, Equal Remuneration Acts
- Industrial Relations Code, 2020 — merges Trade Unions, Industrial Employment, Industrial Disputes Acts
- Code on Social Security, 2020 — merges ESI, EPF, Gratuity Acts and others
- OSH Code, 2020 — merges 13 laws on safety, health & working conditions
- TARA = Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation
- Converts unguided bombs → precision-guided glide weapons
- Developed by DRDO; tested by Indian Air Force
- Glide bombs — aerodynamic lift + onboard guidance; extended range
- Supports Atmanirbhar Bharat — reduces import dependence
Strategic Edge: Extends aircraft standoff range, improves survivability, cost-effectively converts legacy bomb inventories into smart weapons.
- Standoff Weapon — attacks targets from beyond enemy air defences
- Smart Bomb — conventional bomb with added guidance systems
- iDEX — Innovations for Defence Excellence (startup support)
- Positive Indigenisation List — items procured only from Indian sources
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